Open {hardware}: From DIY development to world transformation in entry to laboratory gear

The concept of constructing your personal gear is as previous as experimental science. Nevertheless, within the context of the present, professionalized, industrial analysis laboratory infrastructure, the idea of researchers constructing their very own laboratory instruments is barely starting to be rediscovered. As of 21 November 2022, the Net of Science listed 58,889 publications on 3D printing (77% since 2018) throughout all search fields; 19,308 on open {hardware} (47% since 2018); 10,196 mentioning Arduino microcontrollers (58% since 2018); and 6,010 mentioning the low-cost Raspberry Pi laptop (70% since 2018). These phrases embody common strategies or instruments for DIY instrumentation (Field 1) which might be seeing a speedy development in publication numbers. The portfolio of low-cost instruments accessible is usually pushed by the broader “maker” motion exterior of academia, the place persons are investing of their native manufacturing expertise to create and customise applied sciences. An vital side of the maker development is the entry to digital fabrication, which permits the interchange of more and more advanced digital designs that may be produced regionally with an automatic fabrication machine. Digital fabrication contains 3D printing, laser reducing, CNC milling, plotter reducing, the fabrication of electrical circuit boards, and even microfluidic chips and DNA synthesis. Communal workshops equivalent to FabLabs, MakerSpaces, and others have sprung up across the globe to supply entry to digital fabrication.

The impression of DIY applied sciences on analysis might be assessed by analyzing current scientific publications. Relating to scientific publications typically, a number of nations dominate the worldwide rating for variety of manuscripts authored, as illustrated in Fig 1A. These nations usually have a excessive density of scientists and an industrial economic system that produces advanced items, as might be seen in Fig 1B. However what about publications mentioning DIY instruments? Whereas 3D printing or open {hardware} could also be referred to in an industrial or theoretical context, the Arduino and Raspberry Pi boards are particular instruments which might be extra more likely to have been utilized in follow when talked about as a part of a examine’s methodology. On this sense, publications utilizing these phrases can be utilized as a proxy for research utilizing DIY {hardware} typically. When looking for Arduino or Raspberry Pi key phrases within the strategies part of articles (Fig 1C), the publication distribution reveals fascinating variations compared to the general publications (Fig 1A). The nations visibly overrepresented amongst these publishing research that point out DIY expertise are usually positioned in areas of the world with fewer science sources. With little comparative information accessible on laboratory expertise use, this information supplies an indicator that DIY expertise does certainly contribute to expertise entry in low-resource settings. Sadly, many research in organic sciences that use such instruments don’t spotlight this methodological method of their articles, making the contributions of those instruments to biology much less discoverable [3].

Fig 1. Publication statistics reveal world developments in DIY expertise use.

(a) The worldwide distribution of whole publications produced by nations and areas. A rustic’s fraction of whole publications (58,485,740) is represented by its relative dimension within the graph. Knowledge supply: scimagojr whole citable paperwork on any matter from 1996 to 2020. (b) Graph exhibiting every nation (marked by nation code and coloured by area) with respect to their density of researchers within the inhabitants and their financial complexity index. The scale of the factors represents the nation’s H-index. Knowledge sources: researcher density, Worldbank Growth Indicators, newest information accessible by nation; financial complexity index, Atlas of Financial Complexity, 2019 information or newest accessible; nation H-index, scimagojr nation rank, 1996–2020 all topics; world areas, UN sustainable growth targets. Nations with out information in all related datasets had been eliminated. (c) International distribution of publications that point out the instruments “Raspberry Pi” or “Arduino” within the methodology part of the article by nation and areas. A rustic’s fraction of whole publications (3,718) is represented by its relative dimension within the graph. Nations visibly overrepresented on this class relative to general publications are highlighted in black. Knowledge supply: Net of Science (WoS) search outcomes on “Raspberry Pi” or “Arduino” throughout publications (articles, proceedings papers, early entry, and information papers) listed earlier than the search date (15 September 2022). A complete of 13,285 articles had been discovered. This publication dataset was then in comparison with a Scite search on wider literature with “Arduino” or “Raspberry Pi” within the methodology part (23,703 outcomes). The datasets had been then merged by DOI and, the place absent, by title to acquire 3,718 matches that include the WoS publication kind filter, methodology part criterion, and publication nation information. The relative publication by nation distribution for all WoS articles on the subject is much like the outcome displayed for the strategy part solely. The R code to generate Fig 1 is shared within the following repository: https://osf.io/59bv2/.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001931.g001

On this Essay, I replicate not solely on device entry in low-resource settings, but additionally on constructing and creating applicable open-source instruments by native laboratories. To that finish, worldwide datasets are contrasted in Fig 1B to contextualize low-resource settings, not solely by way of funding, but additionally of their entry to scientific and developer know-how, in addition to industrial sources. Researcher density and the financial complexity index [4] had been chosen as quantifiable variables to characterize a rustic’s population-level “high-science” or “high-technology” setting, respectively (or each or none). They illustrate the know-how and recourse context a scientist within the nation would possibly face when buying and recruiting to equip a laboratory.

If laboratories in low-resource settings have much less funding and are extra doubtless to make use of low-cost DIY applied sciences than laboratories in high-resource settings, then is using DIY expertise merely a value discount technique? The numerous price reductions that may be achieved with DIY and open-source {hardware} have been highlighted within the literature [5,6]. DIY {hardware} parts typically price just one% to 10% of economic proprietary instruments, providing substantial financial savings for low-resource laboratories and enabling new purposes the place the gear can’t be merely reused; for instance, constructing a microscope to be positioned inside an incubator with pathogens. This price discount makes some open applied sciences common price range instruments. Nevertheless, there are a number of different key points that affect the selection of utilizing open applied sciences, notably data switch benefits and native fabrication.

Data switch in a analysis context is broadly outlined because the dissemination of data, guaranteeing that analysis insights are utilized in sensible phrases. Nevertheless, data switch is usually narrowly interpreted as commercialization by patents and corporations holding licenses. The current development of open {hardware} has led to an alternate mannequin [7], through which open supply designs enable for a quicker and earlier adoption of latest strategies by scientific customers [8]. Open-sourcing a design allows early adopters to construct the brand new instrument earlier than it’d grow to be commercially accessible, which, in flip, can result in well timed suggestions and enhancements to the unique design. The motivational side for builders to hurry up adaptation of their expertise is vital to say alongside easy price discount of {hardware} and is more likely to contribute to the rising reputation of open expertise amongst builders.

One other key side of expertise alternative is native manufacturing. In any analysis laboratory, entry to 3D printers and a great connection to a CNC milling workshop can result in quicker instrumentation design turnaround occasions and a greater potential to customise setups. For laboratories in low-resource settings, specifically, many suppliers and repair suppliers aren’t accessible or simply accessible. Buying state-of-the-art gear in such areas is costlier and takes longer than it might in high-resource settings, typically with unsure transport and import prices [9]. Moreover, upkeep of such gear is usually unsustainable owing to the fee and availability of components, an absence of particular know-how amongst native workers, and the expense of bringing the corporate’s upkeep crew to the laboratory. These logistic and coaching challenges depart many devices in low-resource settings out of order [10–12]. Due to this fact, the DIY method might be the one reasonably priced and, if nicely documented, sustainable choice for laboratories in scientific environments characterised by financial and infrastructural constraints. On this context, the native management of versatile digital technique of fabrication could make an vital distinction to the expertise that may be made accessible in a laboratory. For instance, it could actually enable researchers to 3D print the latest microscope stage mannequin discovered on-line, or emailed from abroad, utilizing normal printing filament provides and about two days-worth of time [13]. Furthermore, the world has not too long ago witnessed the significance of native manufacturing because of the COVID-19 pandemic. On this second of worldwide scarcity, many equipment-producing nations first equipped their very own native wants, enforced by export bans or not with the ability to ship elsewhere by collapsed commerce routes. In response, many individuals spontaneously developed DIY and open-source options to regionally produce private protecting gear, equivalent to 3D-printed face shields, and even medical instrumentation, particularly mechanical ventilators [14,15].

Fig 1 means that DIY expertise is widespread and sure used to entry expertise. However what precisely is the distinction been “DIY expertise” and “open expertise”? Open-source {hardware} is outlined as a bodily object whose design is made publicly accessible in order that anybody can examine, modify, distribute, make, and promote the design or {hardware} primarily based on that design [16]. In distinction to DIY, which is a follow, open {hardware} is an idea that describes how the design (which is inherently DIY within the eyes of the maker) is made accessible: It should no less than have a documentation, modifiable design information, and an appropriate license. Extra about greatest practices (see OSHWA) and standardization efforts [17] might be learn elsewhere.

In follow, open expertise can take a various vary of kinds and shapes (Fig 2). Field 2 categorizes open expertise designs into 10 varieties to make sense of their variations within the context of this text. Even amongst researchers aiming to make their designs overtly accessible, most find yourself not sharing design information for sensible causes [18], which makes these tasks merely DIY, not open supply. Open applied sciences span many “maker-style” life science tasks, which might be notably “make-able” when primarily based on digital fabrication designs. Open applied sciences even embrace organic wetware, which additionally consists of bodily objects and might even be digitally fabricated, e.g., within the case of enzyme encoding genes. Open-source expertise might be low price and easy, however can be very technically difficult and costly, such because the CERN particle accelerator electronics or laptop processors.

Fig 2. Ten sorts of open {hardware}.

A variety of tasks falls throughout the portfolio of open {hardware} in a analysis context. Ten varieties (candy spot, costly meeting, open platform, open upkeep, frugal DIY, open wetware, purist, unshared maker repair, open infrastructure, and easy print) are conceptualized and rated in radar charts alongside 5 dimensions (see scale within the middle): native fabrication suitability (can parts be fabricated nearly anyplace?); adaptability of the design; suitability for all times science customers to work together with the undertaking documentation and contribute as builders; availability of modifiable open supply design information; and to what diploma wanted parts are low price. The chosen dimensions had been rated subjectively on a scale from 0–4 to distinguish sorts of open {hardware} typically, not solely the given examples [19–23]. See Field 2 for additional clarification.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001931.g002

The open {hardware} idea is vital to this dialogue as a result of it describes the distinction between these inside designs in laboratories that merely make the most of the benefit of making options “maker-style” and people which might be shared in a means that’s helpful for others. Solely open tasks might be tailored to native wants and additional developed to expertise designs that lie past the event technique of a single laboratory. The spectacular development potential of open-source tasks has many examples within the older motion of free and open-source software program, equivalent to Linux and FIJI. Early examples of open applied sciences such because the OpenFlexure microscope [19] (Fig 2 and Field 2) present us with a glimpse of the place open {hardware} tasks can go if they’re constructed on digital design information and assist the formation of a group. The OpenFlexure designs are open, low price, excessive efficiency, and might be automated (e.g., for slide scanning). They’re simple to adapt, and their designs use normal components and modular digital information for native fabrication by 3D printing.

The mindset to make use of and construct on one another’s data to advance science is more and more being utilized to biology laboratory instrumentation. Though the documentation of particular person tasks could not all the time be good and group requirements are nonetheless evolving [17], it is suggested that laboratories interact on this ongoing transformation, fail, be taught, and take a look at once more with extra success as a method of benefitting from the benefits for experimental analysis. Sources can be found in any respect ranges [3].

Most laboratories that self-identify as expertise growth groups are primarily based in nations with many scientists and a fancy trade (see nations within the prime right-hand nook of Fig 1B) and have entry to comparatively giant funding sources and trade collaborations. Such growth tasks are sometimes undertaken with modular instruments which might be particularly commercialized for science builders and subsequently look someway “skilled.” This contains black-anodized optomechanical components, laser-modules with top-of-the-line branding, digital automation boards working the provider’s proprietary software program libraries, the most recent use-case-specific goal lens, and neat industrial pattern holders. And why not? It may be an applicable method when funding permits, when there’s inventory on the native provider and assist groups supply customization. Extra importantly, these instruments are usually dependable and appropriate and might thus save the crew the time and problem of constructing cheaper instruments appropriate, in addition to double checking their efficiency. Replicating devices from such meeting guides (kind 2 in Fig 2 and Field 2) could or is probably not cheaper than shopping for industrial options, they usually could or could not include different open-source parts equivalent to software program or 3D design information. Nonetheless, helpful instrumentation data is disseminated, and, because of the modularity of instruments, it may be additional modified and improved.

In contrast, scientists who develop open applied sciences with a extra formidable definition of accessibility, with globally accessible instruments and at decrease price, proceed to face vital symbolic and institutional restrictions, regardless of the a number of advantages for scientific and technological growth of such an method [30]. Such self-builds are typically considered as unprofessional or unsuccessful in grant purposes and, till not too long ago, confronted limitations from tutorial journals to publish their work. Fortuitously, there are numerous good and well-published examples of open {hardware} that can be utilized to underline the scientific imaginative and prescient of such applicable expertise [31–39]. Nonetheless, this stigma has implications for sharing, because the builders won’t really feel that their options are proficient sufficient to share, and they won’t self-identify as expertise builders. The time period “applicable expertise” is beneficial to clarify why many such options are however of curiosity to scientists in high-resource and low-resource settings alike. A expertise is deemed to be applicable when it’s “appropriate with native, cultural, and financial circumstances (i.e., the human, materials, and cultural sources of the economic system) and makes use of regionally accessible supplies and power sources, with instruments and processes maintained and operationally managed by the native inhabitants” [40] and, when potential, open supply [41]. Instruments that could be applicable in a number of well-resourced nations could also be troublesome to acquire, preserve, and afford in different nations, making applied sciences primarily based on these instruments inappropriate for analysis use elsewhere. Know-how growth labs which have entry to a wide selection of instruments could use lower-cost expertise to allow new purposes, or contemplate world entry to parts with a view to enhance alternatives for world adoption of their applicable expertise and thereby enhance the impression of their strategies. Both means, such applied sciences could merely be “applicable” for the duty. For causes of price, entry, and operation, it is probably not applicable to, for instance, use skilled chemically resistant microfilters to fish microplastics from the ocean off the shores of Newfoundland, and as a substitute, child’s tights often is the proper device for the job [42]. Digital fabrication can also be an applicable method to construct expertise for analysis in a variety of areas globally. It’s subsequently beneficial to evaluate whether or not a device is an applicable expertise, given its supposed software context, relatively than simply highlighting its low price and even utilizing the negatively connotated time period “low cost.” If highlighted as applicable expertise, designs in manuscripts are much less more likely to miss their viewers.

In recent times, a broad portfolio of open expertise designs has been made accessible, sufficient to equip complete life science laboratories (Fig 3). On this Essay, general-purpose gear is highlighted for broad curiosity and as a great way to start out partaking in open applied sciences. Along with examples in Fig 3, many different examples have been printed, together with a 3D-printable rotator mixer for incubators [43], a transportable CO₂ incubator for tissue tradition [44], a 3D-printable spectrophotometer [45], an anaerobic chamber with a DIY catalyst [46], a system for automated parallel microbial cultivation [36], an isothermal well-plate reader for LAMP reactions (MIRIAM), an open supply Prusa 3D printer modified for bioprinting [47], and plenty of extra. In addition to built-in and automatic gear, there’s a wealth of easier open-source 3D-printable designs, equivalent to gear adapters, covers, clips, pattern or pipette holders, well-plate locator stands, physiological fashions, and extra (see Thingiverse, Instructables, Hackster.io, Wikifactory, and different platforms). These might be redesigned or tailored to native wants. For instance, this semester a few of my college students designed 3D-printed pipette holders that maintain the pipettes in place with a delicate flex mechanism (Fig 3C1), in order that they’re much less more likely to fall throughout Chile’s frequent shakes.

Fig 3. Examples of biology laboratories geared up with open expertise.

The highest photos present the Mboa Lab in Cameroon (supply: openbioeconomy.org) and center and decrease photos present the Wenzel Lab in Chile. The next gear is proven: primary industrial gentle microscope (a1), open {hardware} thermocycler (rebuild of OpenPCR) (a2), small industrial DNA evaluation gear (miniPCR, bluegel, vortexter, centrifuge) (a3), repurposed Sous Vide as water bathtub (a4), repurposed stress cooker as autoclave (a5), self-designed open {hardware} incubator (a6), self-designed open {hardware} shaking incubator (a7), industrial open {hardware} 3D printer (a8), use of reagents and open enzymes (a9). Secondhand industrial laminar stream hood (b1), secondhand industrial microscope with customized enclosure and 3D-printed pattern and digital camera adaptors (b2), open supply laser-cut fluorescence plate imaging station (rebuilt; [48]) (b3), open laser-cut smartphone microscope (Roachscope from Yard Brains) (b4), open 3D-printed OpenFlexure microscope in fluorescence configuration (rebuilt and star-LED fitted; [49]) (b5), 3D-printed computational microscope (rebuilt with Unicorn Raspberry Pi hat) (b6), open 3D-printed holographic microscope (UC2 rebuild; [31]) (b7), open time-lapse a number of Petri plate imaging system (SPIRO rebuild in progress; [50]) (b8). Scholar-designed 3D-printed pipette holders with earthquake security (c1), open 3D-printed tube racks (rebuilt from Dormant Biology Lab design) (c2), 3D-printed pipette tip aligner for tip field refill (Elster rebuild) (c3), self-designed microfluidics instructional workstation (Raspberry Pi–primarily based management of 3D-printed syringe pumps and microscope) (c4), open workstation for built-in single-cell transcriptomics (RNA-seq miniDrops rebuild; [33]) (c5), open 3D-printed microscopy pipetting robotic that may be mounted on a microscope (rebuild in progress; [32]) (c6), open-source gel electrophoresis set (self-designed parametric laser-cut gel chamber with open industrial IORodeo energy provide and IORodeo blue LED transilluminator) (c7), open thermocycler (Gaudilab PocketPCR constructed from industrial set) (c8), open self-designed well-plate locator stand (c9), open industrial pipetting robotic OpenTrons (c10).

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Normal-purpose gear designs are usually of broad curiosity, however typically industrial and proprietary options exist already. In distinction, open options notably stand out for fixing particular purposes that few different folks presently share, or the place gear can’t be recovered, e.g., outside sensors and expertise for infectious illness analysis [49,51]. One other applicable method for organic experiments is to make use of low-cost digital boards to automate or add sensors to experiments, e.g., for humidity, stress, temperature, or positioning. On this context, it typically doesn’t matter to the researcher if the board itself is open supply (e.g., Arduino) or not (e.g., Raspberry Pi), it’s merely used as a part in an in any other case hopefully well-documented setup. Examples and approaches for open electronics in biology have not too long ago been described elsewhere [3]. Two explicit lively areas of open growth are microscopy [52] and neuroscience. One other thrilling space of development is open wetware, which democratizes entry to enzymes, reagents, and reagent fabrication designs [27,53,54]. Automation for pattern dealing with and calibration is moreover used to enhance reproducibility of analysis.

At the moment, it’s uncommon to see a laboratory with many open applied sciences used on the similar time. Often, even in low-resource settings, laboratories include a mixture of some comparatively new devices funded by analysis grants, secondhand gear (often older, borrowed from colleagues, moved from different laboratories or tasks, and a few donated), and self-made options, starting from buffer-mixes, coat hangers, and incubator racks, to the extra advanced analysis instrumentation mentioned above. The combination of expertise varieties in use can also be illustrated within the laboratory examples from Africa and South America in Fig 3. Importantly, costly setups can nonetheless be an choice in low-resource settings, though this often happens within the context of core amenities when they’re made accessible to different analysis customers that pay to be used or as an area service.

Partaking in open expertise growth will not be meant to oppose the mainstream method of data switch by commercialization. As with multibillion greenback open software program corporations, nonproprietary merchandise can nonetheless be offered, marketed, developed, and serviced. All these are worthwhile methods of constructing an open design much more accessible. Open {hardware}–associated enterprise fashions are an ongoing space of growth [55,56] and follow, as demonstrated by the examples of open {hardware} corporations offered in Desk 1.

Typically lecturers and universities do not need the means, authorized or industrial data to implement world mental property infringements. Publishing designs overtly can defend from future patent claims by others. And whereas patents are nonetheless a great advertising and marketing device for buyers, the a number of yr cycle of patent processing is usually out of sync with fast-moving technological growth. The investing markets may also not be one of the best place to unravel native issues; completely different enterprise fashions may very well be used with out the stress of enterprise capital to make a distinction nearer to house. Open tasks might be quicker, extra versatile, and, maybe most significantly, nearer to the customers. Customers can straight modify and enhance the open expertise at hand, thus advancing expertise, contributing to native availability of options, and empowering residents [57–59].

As mentioned above, biology laboratories in low-resource settings face challenges round expertise entry which might be much more advanced than the provision of cash to purchase devices. Open-source designs and digital native manufacturing are more and more employed as promising options to a number of of those challenges. So why is open expertise not but actively supported by funders and establishments in these areas? There isn’t any conclusive information accessible to reply this query rigorously. The next factors would possibly contribute to grasp the established order: Open {hardware} sharing is a comparatively current idea and never but identified by all; scientific growth in low-resource settings tends to observe the patterns of scientific growth in high-resource settings, the place requirements of open {hardware} have hardly ever been applied at an institutional degree however first examples are rising [60]; and low-resource settings are inclined to have a decrease density of scientists and a much less advanced economic system and, subsequently, much less advanced native manufacturing amenities than high-resource settings (Fig 1B, bottom-left). This lack of a expertise growth ecosystem leads to lowered entry to manufacturing sources and certified personnel to construct devices. Fabrication expertise are extremely wanted and educated people can contribute to the migration of superior human capital away from low-resource settings. This perception into the native ecosystem highlights the necessity for detailed documentation and using standardized and accessible instruments to boost regional software.

Many people and laboratories in low-resource settings don’t see themselves as expertise builders and, subsequently, maybe don’t contemplate their native options as value sharing. In actual fact, in lots of locations, overseas and western manufacturers are extremely valued, which might lengthen to laboratories and their heads desirous to be seen as professionals by working with common worldwide gear. Moreover, in China [61,62] and another components of Asia, advanced manufacturing amenities and technical know-how can be found and allow quick and low-cost prototyping of expertise, however designs and calibration directions are sometimes not shared intimately. The dearth of sharing of documentation could also be brought on by a perception that individuals anyplace may simply construct one thing equal, or by a distinct mindset round mental property licensing, expertise switch, task-sharing, communication, and documentation practices.

We may see a good quicker development of customized life science expertise designs if we adjusted institutional insurance policies [60] to incentivize departmental workshops to launch the customized designs [18] they create for particular person researchers. Typically, the alternative is the case, and institutional workshop workers aren’t allowed to launch information or enable the respective tutorial to make the information accessible. Generally, lecturers are additionally prevented from open-sourcing their probably patentable developments. That is another reason to work overtly from the beginning of a undertaking and launch documentation because the analysis develops, enabling early collaboration and suggestions. With such an method, there isn’t any cut-off date at which an institutionally problematic quantity of mental property is launched. The “open from the beginning” mannequin additionally avoids the backlog of documentation duties left for last deadlines.